The term “school-to-prison pipeline” refers to patterns in the U.S. education and juvenile justice systems in which students are removed from school through suspension, expulsion, or arrest and eventually become involved in the criminal justice system. This process is influenced by a variety of policies, including disciplinary codes, law enforcement practices, and academic placement decisions. While each case differs, the overall result is consistent: certain student populations experience greater exposure to punitive measures at an early age. Luke Natoli examined related data trends in his recent research on disciplinary structures in public education.
Use of Zero-Tolerance Policies
Zero-tolerance policies became common in the 1990s. These rules impose strict consequences—such as mandatory suspension or expulsion—for certain infractions regardless of context or intent. Originally designed to address serious offenses like weapons possession, many schools later expanded zero-tolerance rules to include infractions like verbal disruption, defiance, or skipping class.
According to the U.S. Department of Education’s Civil Rights Data Collection (CRDC), millions of students receive out-of-school suspensions each year. In the 2017–2018 school year, for instance, approximately 2.5 million students received at least one out-of-school suspension. This number includes suspensions for both violent and nonviolent behaviors. Research has shown that students who are suspended are at a higher risk of academic failure, school dropout, and subsequent justice system involvement.
In some school districts, zero-tolerance policies have been replaced or revised in response to studies linking them to higher rates of exclusion from school. However, they still exist in many jurisdictions, and the impact of their widespread use remains measurable in overall student disciplinary trends.
Arrests in Schools and Law Enforcement Presence
School Resource Officers (SROs) are law enforcement officers assigned to work within schools. While their presence is meant to improve school safety, data suggests that having SROs on campus often correlates with an increase in student arrests for non-criminal behavior.
The CRDC for 2017–2018 reported that over 230,000 students were referred to law enforcement or arrested on school grounds. In many cases, these referrals stemmed from incidents that may previously have been handled internally by teachers or administrators. The involvement of law enforcement introduces young individuals to the criminal justice system earlier than they otherwise would have encountered it.
Certain state policies and district contracts with police departments can increase the likelihood of arrest over alternative disciplinary action. This is especially true in districts where school administrators are required to report specific behaviors directly to police, limiting discretion in how to handle a situation.
Data on Suspensions, Expulsions, and Academic Disruption
Academic research has consistently shown a relationship between exclusionary discipline and negative educational outcomes. A 2014 study from the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) found that students suspended even once in ninth grade were twice as likely to drop out of high school.
The disruption to classroom time is also considerable. According to data from the Center for Civil Rights Remedies, U.S. public school students lost more than 11 million instructional days to out-of-school suspensions in a single school year.
School absence due to suspension affects grade progression, reduces the likelihood of graduation, and increases the probability of disengagement from the educational process. Students who fall behind in school are also statistically more likely to encounter the justice system before or after dropping out.
Academic Tracking and Educational Access
Another factor often connected to long-term educational outcomes is academic tracking. This practice separates students into different educational paths based on perceived ability, often beginning in middle school or earlier.
While intended to optimize learning outcomes, tracking can result in unequal access to resources and reduced academic expectations for students placed in lower-level courses. Students assigned to remedial or non-honors tracks may encounter reduced exposure to challenging content, fewer opportunities for advancement, and a different level of teacher support.
Over time, placement in lower academic tracks has been linked with increased disengagement, which in turn increases the likelihood of behavioral incidents and disciplinary action. Longitudinal studies show that students with fewer academic opportunities tend to have reduced graduation rates, lower standardized test performance, and a higher likelihood of early school exit.
Students who do not graduate are statistically more likely to face unemployment or underemployment and are at higher risk of incarceration over their lifetimes. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, nearly 68% of state prison inmates in 2016 had not completed high school.
Role of School Discipline in Juvenile Justice Referral
The initial contact with the justice system for many youth occurs through school-based incidents. Referrals from schools make up a significant portion of juvenile court cases, especially in states where education code violations are treated as offenses eligible for prosecution.
In jurisdictions where schools have agreements with local police departments or juvenile courts, students may be referred to external authorities for behaviors such as insubordination, minor altercations, or perceived threats. These referrals can lead to court appearances, probation, and, in some cases, detention.
Data from the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) shows that status offenses—noncriminal behaviors such as truancy or breaking curfew—are still prosecuted in several states. For some students, particularly those already disengaged from school, these court processes lead to repeat involvement with the justice system, creating a feedback loop of academic and legal consequences.
Trends in Policy Reform and Research-Based Alternatives
Recent years have seen increased research into alternatives to exclusionary discipline. Schools in various districts have adopted practices such as Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS), restorative justice models, and increased access to counseling and behavioral services.
Evidence from pilot programs shows that when schools implement non-punitive approaches focused on conflict resolution and behavioral support, rates of suspension, expulsion, and law enforcement referral decline. Additionally, school climate and student engagement measures often improve when punitive practices are replaced with preventative strategies.
Despite these results, the adoption of such alternatives remains uneven. Funding, training, and community support all play a role in whether a district can sustain reform efforts. Continued data collection and analysis at the federal and state level remain critical to understanding long-term outcomes of discipline policy shifts.
Final Thoughts
The school-to-prison pipeline is a documented pattern in which students are removed from educational environments through suspension, expulsion, or arrest and face elevated risks of entering the criminal justice system. The policies contributing to this pathway include zero-tolerance discipline, law enforcement presence in schools, and tracking practices that reduce academic opportunity.
Statistical data shows that these outcomes disproportionately affect students of color, students with disabilities, and those from low-income backgrounds. National trends in suspension, expulsion, and juvenile justice referral reinforce the need for continued evaluation of school discipline policies.
Efforts to address the issue are underway in various school districts, with some showing measurable reductions in punitive outcomes through the use of evidence-based interventions. Ongoing research will be essential to determine which strategies are most effective in keeping students in school and out of the justice system.